33 Keys to Decoding the Korean Wave, Hallyu 

#5 K-Cinema: Country of Trauma, Culture of Drama

Han (恨) and the Renaissance of Korean Cinema

 

*한류를 이해하는 33가지 코드 #5 한(恨)과 한국영화 르네상스 <한국어 버전, Korean version>

http://www.nyculturebeat.com/index.php?mid=Focus&document_srl=4075077

 

Standing ovation for director Bong Joon-ho, who won the Best International Feature Film award for “Parasite” at the Academy Awards ceremony on February 9, 2020.

"Arirang, Arirang, Arariyo/ You're crossing over Arirang Hill/ If you leave me here like this/ Your feet will ache before ten miles still.

Arirang, Arirang, Arariyo/ You're crossing over Arirang Hill/ As countless stars fill the night sky/ So too do dreams our hearts fulfill.

Arirang, Arirang, Arariyo/ You're crossing over Arirang Hill/ That distant mountain is Baekdu/ Where flowers bloom in winter's chill."

We have our own emotions and illnesses that only Koreans understand. They are “Han(恨)” and “Hwabyeong(火病).” The Korean people have gone through all kinds of battles in their 5,000 year history since Dangun Joseon. As we lived through that hard life, Koreans' hearts were filled with sorrow called Han. The feeling of Han comes from historical events (foreign invasion, civil war, colonization, war, divided country, displacement, separated families, adopted children, etc.); political oppression (dictatorship, corruption, deprivation of freedom, etc.); social (class, Confucian culture of gender inequality, wealth gap, etc.); and personal frustration (college entrance exams, military service, employment, divorce, filial piety, etc.). The emotions of anger, resentment, grief, regret, depression, anxiety, and a sense of defeat accumulated in the heart for a long time. That is, it is the feeling of the weak.  

When this Han accumulates in the heart, it becomes a “Hwa-Byeong.” Hwa means "fire" and byeong means "syndrome" or "illness" in Korean.
Hwabyeong is often experience by immigrants. Uprooted from their homeland, making a nest in an unfamiliar land, and starting a second life, they always encounter language barriers, cultural obstacles, and racial discrimination. Here, they live with infinite stress, including permanent residency, rent, medical insurance, and the generation gap with their children. In 1995, the American Psychiatric Association mentioned Hwabyeong as a cultural syndrome that appears in Korean immigrants in the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. In English, it is called Somatization Disorder.



“Arirang,” directed, written by and starring Na Woon-gyu, and produced in 1926, is a film depicting the sorrow of Koreans, and the theme song 'Arirang' has spread widely.

“Arirang” is a song that deeply expresses the Han of our people. “Arirang” was actually the theme song of  “Arirang” (1926), a silent film written and directed by and starring Chunsa Na Woon-gyu (1902-1937), who was just 24 years old. 

It's a story about a philosophy student, Yeong-jin,  who has become mentally ill after being imprisoned and tortured by the Japanese for his involvement in the March 1st protest against the Japanese occupation. He returns to his hometown and stabs and kills with a sickle a pro-Japanese farmhand who was assaulting his younger sister. Yeong-jin awakens from the madness only to be arrested by the Japanese police.  In the last scene, the "Arirang" theme song is heard.

“Arirang,” which depicts the wrath and sorrow of the Koreans who lost their country, was released on October 1, 1926 at Danseongsa in Seoul. From the first day of the screening, the Government-General confiscated and repressed 10,000 leaflets, saying they had disturbing lyrics. However, after the release, the theme song “Arirang” spread all over the country and was sung like the national anthem. The movie “Arirang” remained a national film that was re-screened 800 times in Seoul alone over the next 20 years. In an interview with the magazine Samchully in 1937, Na Woon-gyu, the “Orson Welles of Korean Cinema,” said that he had composed "Arirang."

"I wrote it. When I was a young elementary school student, a railroad began to be built from Chongjin to Hoeryong, and then workers from the south sang a sad song 'Arirang, Arirang' while paving the railroad tracks. When I heard that song, I stopped walking and listened to it for a while, and then I memorized the sad and beautiful melody by myself. ... I remembered the melody I had heard before, wrote the lyrics, and asked the Danseongsa Music Band for the song. I made it." -Arirang Archive-



The first Korean movie was “Fight For Justice,” directed by Kim Do-san, which was released at Danseongsa in 1919. Newspaper advertisement and producer Park Seung-pil, director Kim Do-san.

“Arirang” has become a signature song of Korean people's Han. There are about 3,600 variations of 60 different versions of the song handed down across the country, including Jeongseon Arirang, Miryang Arirang, and Jindo Arirang. In 2012, Arirang was registered as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. However, the film of “Arirang” was lost, and Na Woon-gyu died of tuberculosis at the age of 34. In 1990, the Korean Film Directors Association hosted the Chunsa Film Festival, an award ceremony named after Na Woon-gyu.

In 2019, Korean cinema celebrated its 100th anniversary. Korea's first movie was “Fight for Justice,” directed by Kim Do-san, which was released at Danseongsa on October 27, 1919, under Japanese colonial rule. “Fight for Justice,” which Park Seung-pil, the owner of Danseongsa, invested 5,000 won to produce, was in the form of a kinodrama, a movie inserted between plays.

It was filmed at Han River Iron Bridge, Jangchungdan Park, Cheongnyangri, Namdaemun Station, and Ttukseom, etc. It is the story of Song-san, a son who fights against the wicked stepmother's scheming. Stepmother is the metaphor for Japan, Song-san is Korea. Although the theme is poetic justice, for Koreans, it must have been a film that inherited the national spirit of the 3.1 Movement.


Country of Trauma, Culture of Drama

KBS-TV “Finding Dispersed Families” (1983). Photo: KBS-TV
 

The sorrow of Koreans often feels more like fiction than reality, unfolding in dramatic, heart-wrenching episodes. The Korean War (1950–1953) tore families apart, leaving many separated for decades. This national pain was brought vividly to life in 1983 through KBS-TV’s special live broadcast, Finding Dispersed Families. The unscripted reunions of long-lost relatives reduced viewers to tears, creating a poignant human drama unmatched by American reality TV staples like Big Brother or Survivor. Unlike competitive entertainment, this Korean reality program resonated globally with its message of peace, deeply rooted in the scars of war.

 

 

That summer, as a college sophomore, I worked part-time at KBS-TV, helping to organize applications from families searching for their lost loved ones. The documents were filled with stories of deep sadness and unfulfilled longing. The walls of KBS-TV’s main building in Yeouido were covered with posters of families looking for their missing relatives. 

 

From June to November, over 100,000 reunion applications were submitted, 53,000 families appeared on TV, and 10,189 were reunited. The broadcast set a record for the longest continuous live program—453 hours and 45 minutes—earning international acclaim and recognition. In 2015, the program’s archives were registered in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register.

Director Seung-jun Yi's “In the Absence,” which deals with the Sewol ferry disaster, was the first Korean film to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Documentary.

 

 

This collective sorrow was revisited on April 16, 2014, with the tragic sinking of the Sewol ferry. The disaster claimed 304 lives, mostly students and teachers, leaving the nation in shock and grief. Anger over the government’s incompetence and the corruption of Park Geun-hye’s administration, revealed through her confidante Choi Soon-sil, sparked a democratic revolution. The peaceful candlelight protests that followed led to Park’s impeachment, marking another chapter of resilience in Korean history.

 

Korean life has mirrored the intensity of Greek tragedies, shaping a nation deeply attuned to complex emotional narratives. As a result, Korean TV audiences and filmgoers are sophisticated critics, demanding originality, emotional depth, and exceptional storytelling. Outdated plots and predictable movies no longer suffice. Screenwriters and directors have responded to this challenge by creating intense, unpredictable stories with unparalleled skill, raising the bar for Korean dramas and films.

 

These elevated standards have not only satisfied discerning domestic audiences but have also captivated viewers worldwide, cementing Korea’s reputation as a global leader in the art of storytelling.

 

Korean Cinema I: Dark Age 
 

Hostess (barmaid) films poured out under the Yushin regime in the 1970s. 

Film is a mirror of society. Not only under the Japanese colonial rule, but also under the dictatorships, the freedom of expression of filmmakers was suppressed and subjected to censorship. After passing through that dark and long tunnel, Koreans are enjoying the joy of the cinema renaissance today.

 

How did Korea come to have such outstanding Cineastes? For the last 20 years, Korea has become a film powerhouse with directors Bong Joon-ho, Park Chan-wook, Hong Sang-soo, Lee Chang-dong, and the late Kim Ki-duk. 

Under the Yushin regime in the 1970s, the Film Act allocated foreign film import quotas to the excellent domestic films. As a result, nationalism-themed films such as “Patriotic Martyr An Jung-gun,” “Filial Piety Simcheong,” “Hot Wind in Arabia,” were pouring out. In a way, Korean film production was the strategic tool to gain import rights of foreign films.

The “7080 Generation,” who spent their 20s in Korea in the 1970s and 1980s, were exposed to folk songs, acoustic guitars, beer, coffee shops, and more. It was a generation that was looking for romantic dates in an American-style steak restaurant. Then, what about the movies? “Ms. O's Apartment,” “The Woman I Abandoned,” “The Woman on Asphalt,” “Heavenly Homecoming of the Stars,” “Winter Woman,” “The Golden Age of Youngja,” “Do You Know Flower Sooni,” “I Am Lady Number 77,” “Manless Street,” and other Hostess (barmaid) movies were popular. 

 

 

Prominent filmmakers like Lee Chang-ho, Kim Ho-sun, and Ha Gil-jong popularized the genre, while actresses such as Jung Yun-hee, Jang Mi-hee, and Yoo Ji-in became icons of the time. Reflecting on the prevalence of these films, the late actor Shin Seong-il noted: “To avoid censorship, hostess films became mainstream, focusing on characters unlikely to protest, rather than tackling societal immorality or human rights issues. 

 

This era of cinema captured the socio-economic turbulence of the time, albeit indirectly, through the veiled struggles of its characters. While the 1970s are often referred to as the "Dark Age" of Korean cinema, these films laid the groundwork for the socially conscious storytelling that would later define the nation’s cinematic renaissance. Beneath their surface-level narratives, these works contained glimpses of the broader cultural and economic shifts reshaping Korea—a legacy that continues to influence the country’s modern filmmaking.

 

Erotic films were booming in the 1980s of the Fifth Republic.

Sports, Sex, Screen. In the 1980s, the Fifth Republic accelerated to turn the public's attention to the non-political field with the “3S” policy of sports, sex, and screen. In 1982, when the curfew was lifted for the first time in 37 years, the number of brothels surged, and sports newspapers sold like crazy.

 

Korean cinema during this time was dominated by erotic films such as Madame Aema, Eoudong, Between the Knees, Night of Burning Flesh and Bones, Prostitution, Byeon Kang Soe (Korean Casanova), and Mulberry. However, there was a time when Korean cinema was mired in a swamp of darkness, dominated by films that verged on pornography. I vividly recall covering the Tokyo International Film Festival in 1989 and visiting a local video shop, where I found most Korean films relegated to the erotic video section.

The 386 Generation (born in the 60s, politically active in the 1980's) who took the lead in the democratization movement at that time quenched their thirst with a literary film adaptation of the novels of the two authors; political and social novelist Yi Mun-yol ("Son of Man", "Village in the Mist", "Kuro Arirang") or more popular and commercial novelist Choi In-ho ("Flower on the Equator", "Whale Hunting", "Deep Blue Night", Wanderer in Winter").  It was an era when director Lee Chang-ho, who had a socially critical point of view, and director Bae Chang-ho, who was a romantic cineaste, were two top filmmakers. Ahn Sung-ki, the nation's actor, represented cynical intellectuals or weak average citizens in "A Fine, Windy Day", "A Small Ball Shot by a Midget", "People in a Slum", "Whale Hunting", "Village in the Mist", "Our Sweet Days of Youth", "Gagman", "Hello God", "Chilsu and Mansu", and  "The Age of Success".

 

Hong Kong noir and martial arts films were extremely popular when Korean films were in a dark period in the 1980s. 

The year I graduated from college with a journalism major in 1986, I worked briefly as a media monitor for the Korean National Council of Women. At the time, Lee Young-hee, chairman of the Korea Public Performance Ethics Committee, showed  a compilation of scenes from the movie she had deleted. Even a scene where the female protagonist eats a banana and a construction worker drills a hole in the ground have been cut because it is reminiscent of sexual acts. Director Lee Chang-ho was filming Lee Hyun-se's cartoon "A Daunting Team", but had to change the title to “Lee Chang-ho's Baseball Team”. The original title was rejected by the Committee on the grounds that 'daunting' gives disgust to the public. The Fifth Republic dampened the creative will of filmmakers with “Fearful Scissorhands.”

One day a sports newspaper asked me for a serial column, and the subject was eroticism and movies. I turned it down because it was not my cup of tea. Then the response came, "You are cheeky". (*Please don't insult me, just give me an offer that I can't refuse.)  At that time, I was a program committee member with my professor of the top newspaper for its first new media exhibition. We had a meeting every Monday morning for a couple of months. Sometimes we had free hotel breakfast, but we were not paid as committee members. So probably the column offer was for compensation. After all, the serial column was written deliciously by a male screenwriter who used to be a reporter at a movie magazine. Now he is a mystery novel writer and renowned jazz expert in Korea.

Taking advantage of this niche, Hong Kong films dominated in Korean movie theaters,  from period martial arts, contemporary film noir, to action comedy. Jackie Chan, Chow Yun-fat, Andy Lau, Leslie Cheung, Joey Wong, Brigitte Lin and Maggie Cheung were among the popular stars. Director Tsui Hark was called "Steven Spielberg of Hong Kong", John Woo was known for stylish crime action and Wong Kar-wai's melancholy images fascinated Korean cinephiles. "A Better Tomorrow" (1986), "A Chinese Ghost Story" (1987), "The Killer" (1989), "To Love With No Regret" (1990), "Swordsman" (1990), "Swordsman II" (1992), the so-called Hong Kong New Wave films dominated the Korean box office for a long time.  The situation is completely reversed today.

Venice Film Festival's Best Actress Award for Best Actress “The Surrogate Woman” (1987) and Locarno Film Festival's Golden Leopard Award-winning film “Why Has Bodhi-Dharma Left for the East?” (1989).

In June 1987, after the democratic uprising and the 1988 Seoul Olympics, restrictions were lifted and Korean films came out of a long dark tunnel. The late Kang Soo-yeon (1966-2022) became the first Asian actress to win the Best Actress Award at the Venice Film Festival in 1987 and the Nantes Film Festival in 1988 for “The Surrogate Woman” directed by Im Kwon-taek. Chinese actress Gong Li won the Venice Best Actress Award five years later in 1992 for director Zhang Yimou's ”The Story of Qiu Ju.”

 In 1989, when Korean director Bae Yong-gyun's Buddhist film “Why Has Bodhi-Dharma Left for the East?” won the Golden Leopard Award at the Locarno Film Festival, a ray of hope poured into the film industry. Bae Yong-gyun, who was a professor of art at Hyosung University, was in charge of producing, directing, scripting, shooting, art, editing and lighting, all by himself. His one-man-band filmmaking inspired many aspiring filmmakers.

With the international recognition of Korean cinema, the creative enthusiasm suppressed by filmmakers in the 1990s began to explode like an active volcano. Senior directors such as Im Kwon-taek, Jang Sun-woo, Kwak Ji-Gyun, Chang Gil-coo, Chung Ji Young, Park Chul-soo, Park Kwang-soo, and Lee Myung-se led Korean films.
 

Park Chan-wook, who served as an assistant director for Kwak Jae-yong's "Watercolor Painting in a Rainy Day" (1989), made his directorial debut with "The Moon Is... the Sun's Dream" in 1992. Despite starring singer Lee Seung-cheol, the film was both a critical and commercial failure. Following this setback, Park turned to film criticism and published a book titled "Park Chan-wook's Homage" in 1994, showcasing his insightful reviews. In 1996, Hong Sang-soo, who had studied film in the United States, made his first feature film, "The Day a Pig Fell into the Well," which received rave reviews. That same year, the late Kim Ki-duk (1960-2020), who had spent two years as a street portrait painter in Paris, made his acclaimed debut with the film "Crocodile." All three directors later became darlings of the international film festival circuit.


New Waves in the Korean Film Industry 

In the year of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, major Hollywood studios started distribution directly to Korean movie theaters through UIP (a joint venture of MGM, UA, Universal and Paramount). The first movie was the romantic thriller "Fatal Attraction," starring Michael Douglas and Glenn Close. The descendants of the "People of Resistance", this time in the film industry, rose again to protest. In 1993, the Korean government announced that the screen quota (mandatory screening days for domestic films) would be reduced from 146 days to 40 days per year. As theater owners would release more foreign films to make a profit, for Korean filmmakers, it was like a death sentence threatening their survival. In 1996, with the revision of the Film Act, the screen quota was fixed at 146 days. As of 2006, the current number has been reduced to 73 days.

In the 1990s, a new wave began in Chungmu-ro (formerly "Hollywood Korea"). Conglomerates such as Samsung, Hyundai, Daewoo, CJ, SKC, Doosan, and Lotte entered the film business with great capital and organizational power. When Steven Spielberg's "Jurassic Park" was released in 1993, President Kim Young-sam said, "The box office revenue of one movie is equivalent to exporting 1.5 million cars." And the government defined the film industry as the high-tech industry of the 21st century. In the mid-1990s, along with the late Professor Kang Han-sup (1958-2021) and Professor Kim Young-jin, I contributed a chapter on “The Impact of Conglomerates on the Korean Film Industry” to a book on the Korean film industry.

 

 

Director Im Kwon-taek's “Seopyeonje” surpassed 1 million viewers for the first time in Korean film history.

"Seopyeonje" directed by Im Kwon-taek

 

"Han, which is cutting your chest with your arms, must clench for a sound to come out..."
-Kim Myung-gon, "Seopyeonje" (1993)- 

 

 

The early 1990s heralded a transformative era in Korean cinema: the age of executive producers. This period saw a significant shift as film production and investment were separated, giving rise to a new wave of young film planners, many with backgrounds in film marketing, who assumed roles as executive producers. This departure from the traditional director/producer-centered model introduced fresh perspectives to filmmaking. Additionally, graduates from the Korean Academy of Film Arts began making their debuts, creating original scenarios tailored to younger audiences’ tastes, breaking away from the previous reliance on novel adaptations.

One pioneer of this era was Shin Cine, helmed by Shin Cheol and Oh Jeong-wan, which produced The Marriage Story (1992). Directed by Kim Ui-seok, a graduate of the first class of the Korean Academy of Film Arts, the film became the first curatorial film and romantic comedy in Korean cinema, achieving blockbuster success. Other trailblazers included Shim Jae-myung’s Myung Film (The Contact, JSA), Kang Woo-seok’s Cinema Service (Two Cops, Number 3), and Cha Seung-jae’s Uno Film/Sidus (Christmas in August, Beat), all of whom redefined the industry and brought it to new heights.

 

A pivotal milestone of this era came when a Korean film exceeded 1 million viewers at the box office. Director Im Kwon-taek, who had already found commercial success with The General's Son 1 and -2, achieved this landmark with his 1993 masterpiece Seopyeonje. The film revealed the commercial potential of artistic cinema, attracting over 1 million viewers. Released at Dansungsa Theater—the birthplace of Korean cinema—Seopyeonje became a cultural phenomenon, reigniting nationwide interest in Pansori, the traditional Korean one-person opera. The film’s exploration of Pansori, wandering artists, and the uniquely Korean sentiment of han resonated deeply with audiences, cementing its legacy.

 

The 1990s also saw the emergence of actor Han Seok-kyu as the reigning king of the Korean box office. His superstardom was solidified through a series of blockbuster hits, including Doctor Bong, The Ginkgo Bed, Green Fish, No. 3, The Contact, Christmas in August, Tell Me Something, and Shiri. While the 1970s were marked by hostess films and the 1980s by portrayals of helpless intellectuals often played by Ahn Sung-ki, the 1990s ushered in the dominance of male-led action films.

 

Simultaneously, a new generation of cinephiles emerged. These enthusiasts, who grew up devouring film magazines like RoadShow and Kino, were highly knowledgeable, with cinematic expertise rivaling that of professional critics. Influential critic Jung Sung-il, who served as editor-in-chief of Kino, played a key role in shaping this new wave of film enthusiasts. Among these cinephiles was Park Chan-wook, who began his career as a serious critic for these magazines before rising to prominence as one of the most acclaimed filmmakers of his generation.

 

This vibrant period in Korean cinema laid the groundwork for the creative explosion that would later propel the industry to global acclaim.

 

 

Korean Cinema Renaissance: 2000s

 

 

In the 2000s, directors Im Kwon-taek, Lee Chang-dong, Kim Ki-duk and Park Chan-wook, and actor Jeon Do-yeon won awards one after another at the three major international film festivals in Cannes, Venice and Berlin.
 

Censorship had hindered the development of Korean films since the Japanese colonial period. However, following the democratic uprising in June 1987, the screenplay pre-screening requirement was abolished, and in 1996, film pre-screening was ruled unconstitutional, effectively eliminating censorship. For the first time in the history of Korean cinema, filmmakers could fully unleash their creative freedom.

 

 

In the 2000s, conglomerates re-entered Chungmuro, revitalizing the industry. Although large corporations had ventured into the film business in the early 1990s, the Financial Crisis of 1997 caused significant setbacks. By the 2000s, companies like Cheil Jedang (CJ Entertainment), Orion Group (Megabox), and Lotte Group (Lotte Entertainment) dominated the industry, managing all aspects of film production, investment, distribution, and theater operations.

This period also saw the emergence of Park Chan-wook and Bong Joon-ho as cinematic powerhouses. Park, after early box office failures with The Moon Is... the Sun's Dream (1992) and Trio (1997), found enormous success with Joint Security Area (2000). He solidified his reputation as a master of brutal aesthetics with his "Revenge Trilogy": Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance (2002), Oldboy (2003), and Lady Vengeance (2005). Meanwhile, Bong debuted with the black comedy Barking Dogs Never Bite (2000), which initially went unnoticed. However, he quickly gained recognition as a future master filmmaker with Memories of Murder (2003) and The Host (2006).

 

 

 

Global Recognition: The 2000s and Beyond

 

Korean films experienced an unprecedented renaissance on the global stage during the 2000s, with significant achievements at the world’s three major film festivals—Cannes, Venice, and Berlin. In 2002, Im Kwon-taek, known for giving actress Kang Soo-yeon her award-winning roles in The Surrogate Woman (1987, Venice) and Come Come Come Upward (1989, Moscow), won the Best Director Award at Cannes for Painted Fire (Chihwaseon). That same year, at Venice, Lee Chang-dong won Best Director (Silver Lion), and Moon So-ri won Best New Actress for Oasis, marking the beginning of a golden age for Korean cinema.

 

In 2004, Korean filmmakers swept major awards. Kim Ki-duk won the Best Director Award at Berlin (Samaria) and Venice (3-Iron), while Park Chan-wook took the Grand Prix at Cannes for Oldboy. In 2007, exactly 20 years after Kang Soo-yeon’s historic win at Venice, Jeon Do-yeon won Best Actress at Cannes for Secret Sunshine, directed by Lee Chang-dong. This streak of recognition continued, with Kim Ki-duk making history in 2012 by winning the Golden Lion at Venice for Pieta, the first grand prize for a Korean film.

 

The pinnacle of Korean cinema’s global success came in May 2019, when director Bong Joon-ho won the Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival for Parasite. This groundbreaking achievement set the stage for an even greater triumph at the Academy Awards in February 2020, where Parasite made history by sweeping four major categories: Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay, Best Director, and Best International Feature Film. This unprecedented feat redefined the global perception of Korean cinema.

 

Berlin has recognized Hong Sang-soo with four Silver Bear Awards, highlighting his remarkable contributions to global cinema. His films have received widespread acclaim: The Woman Who Ran (2020) won Best Director; Introduction (2021) earned Best Screenplay; A Novelist's Film (2022) was awarded the Grand Jury Prize; and in 2024, Hong once again claimed the Grand Jury Prize for A Traveler's Needs. These honors reaffirm Hong's status as one of the most consistent and celebrated auteurs in contemporary cinema.

 

 

Since 2000, gangster movies have flourished in Korea, opening the era of 10 million viewers.

 

 

Rise of Gangster Movies as Blockbuster Hits

 

While auteur-driven cinema garnered international acclaim, Korean audiences in the 2010s gravitated toward genre films, particularly gangster movies. Titles such as Friends (2001), Kick the Moon (2001), My Wife is a Gangster (2001), Marrying the Mafia (2002), and A Dirty Carnival (2006) dominated the box office. These films often explored societal themes, serving as satirical reflections on corruption or the aspirations of insecure Korean men navigating a rapidly modernizing society.

 

Unlike Hollywood, where box office success is measured by revenue, Korea gauges a film's popularity by the number of attendees. This audience-focused metric, combined with the rise of multiplex theaters, contributed significantly to the era’s blockbuster phenomenon. Kang Woo-suk’s Silmido marked a milestone in 2003 by becoming the first Korean film to reach 10 million viewers. It was soon followed by other record-breaking hits such as Taegeukgi (2004), The King & The Clown (2005), The Host (2006), and Haeundae (2009).

 

These "Alpha Male" blockbusters not only highlighted the evolving ambition and scale of Korean cinema but also laid the groundwork for the industry’s global recognition. The blend of high-octane storytelling, societal critique, and technical prowess captured both domestic and international audiences, cementing Korean cinema’s place in the global cinematic landscape.

 

 

Art Films vs. Action Epics: The 2010s

Director Kim Ji-woon, Park Chan-wook, and Bong Joon-ho made films in Hollywood in 2013. 

 

 

The 2010s saw a dynamic shift in Korean cinema, marked by directors venturing into Hollywood and a domestic box office dominated by action and historical dramas. In 2013, renowned directors Park Chan-wook, Kim Ji-woon, and Bong Joon-ho made their Hollywood debuts. Park directed the mystery thriller Stoker, starring Nicole Kidman; Kim helmed the western The Last Stand, featuring Arnold Schwarzenegger; and Bong delivered the dystopian thriller Snowpiercer, starring Chris Evans, Tilda Swinton, and Song Kang-ho. These projects showcased their ability to blend commercial appeal with artistic sophistication on an international stage.

 

 

Domestically, Korean audiences gravitated toward gripping action and thriller films. Box office hits included The Unjust (2010), I Saw the Devil (2010), Nameless Gangster: Rules of the Time (2012), Ode to My Father (2014), Inside Men (2015), The Age of Shadows (2016), and Train to Busan (2016). These films reflected a growing demand for intense, character-driven narratives that combined visceral action with social commentary.

 

Song Kang-ho, who began his career with a minor role in Hong Sang-soo's debut film The Day a Pig Fell Into the Well (1996), emerged as a national icon. He worked with auteur filmmakers such as Lee Chang-dong (Green Fish [1997], Secret Sunshine [2007]), Park Chan-wook (Joint Security Area [2000], Sympathy for Mr. Vengeance [2002], Thirst [2009]), and Bong Joon-ho (Memories of Murder [2003], The Host [2006], Snowpiercer [2013], Parasite [2019]). Song also collaborated with commercial directors like Kim Ji-woon on films including The Quiet Family (1998), The Foul King (2000), The Good, The Bad, The Weird (2008), and The Age of Shadows (2016).

 

Lee Byung-hun also cemented his status as a top-grossing box office star with performances in Masquerade (2012), Inside Men (2015), The Age of Shadows (2016), and The Fortress (2017). His versatility extended to Hollywood, where he appeared in blockbuster franchises like G.I. Joe: Retaliation, RED 2, and Terminator Genisys.

 

However, the cultural landscape was overshadowed by political repression during the presidencies of Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye (2008–2017). Both administrations created a blacklist targeting 9,500 cultural artists critical of the regime, including prominent filmmakers such as Bong Joon-ho, Park Chan-wook, Lee Chang-dong, Hwang Dong-hyuk, and Kim Ji-woon. This censorship stifled creative freedom, steering filmmakers toward safer topics.

 

 

 

Under the Lee Myung-bak & Park Geun-hye administrations, historical films that promoted patriotism were pouring out.

 

As a result, historical dramas flourished, often focusing on patriotic themes and pivotal events like the Byeongja Horan, the Imjin War, King Gwanghaegun’s reign, the Provisional Government of Shanghai, and the Korean War—subjects less likely to face political scrutiny. Films such as War of the Arrows (2011), The Front Line (2011), Masquerade (2012), Roaring Currents (2014), Ode to My Father (2014), Assassination (2015), Battle for Incheon: Operation Chromite (2016), The Age of Shadows (2016), The Last Princess (2016), Dongju: The Portrait of a Poet (2016), A Resistance (2019), and The Battle: Roar to Victory (2019) achieved significant box office success during this period.

 

These historical dramas not only resonated with domestic audiences but also highlighted the resilience of Korean cinema in navigating political challenges and evolving into a globally recognized industry.

 

After "Parasite": Minari, Squid Game, Beef, and Past Lives


Director Bong Joon-ho, achieved a first in 100 years of Korean film history, by winning the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival for “Parasite.” The award was presented by French actress Catherine Deneuve. Photo: YouTube 
 

 

Following the inauguration of President Moon Jae-in in May 2017, relations between North and South Korea began to thaw, ushering in a period of stability for the cultural and artistic spheres. Among the beneficiaries was blacklisted director Bong Joon-ho, who had previously worked in Hollywood on Snowpiercer (2013) and Okja (2017). Returning to Korea, Bong directed Parasite (2019), which won the Palme d’Or at the 72nd Cannes Film Festival—a monumental achievement, coinciding with the centenary of Korea's first movie, Fight for Justice (1919). At the 92nd Academy Awards, Parasite made history by sweeping Best Picture, Best Director, Best Original Screenplay, and Best International Feature Film, rewriting both Korean and Academy Award history.

 

In January 2020, Korean American director Lee Isaac Chung’s autobiographical film Minari premiered, telling the story of a Korean immigrant family. It won the Grand Jury Prize and Audience Award at the Sundance Film Festival, while the following month, Parasite dominated the Academy Awards. Together, these two Korean films captured both the American mainstream (Parasite) and independent (Minari) film sectors in the same year. Submitted to the 93rd Academy Awards in 2021, Minari received six nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director (Lee Isaac Chung), Best Original Screenplay, Best Actor (Steven Yeun), Best Supporting Actress (Youn Yuh-jung), and Best Original Score (Emile Mosseri).

 

Youn Yuh-jung made history by winning Best Supporting Actress, becoming the first Korean actress to earn an Academy Award at the age of 73. Her performance garnered over 40 accolades, including the SAG Award and the BAFTA.

 

I interviewed Lee Isaac Chung via email in 2008 for The Korea Daily when his debut film, Munyurangabo, was screened at Lincoln Center and MoMA’s New Directors/New Films series. The film, about friendship and hate during the Rwandan Civil War, was invited to the Un Certain Regard section at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. Born in Denver and raised in Lincoln, Arkansas, Chung majored in biology at Yale and was influenced by the works of Hong Sang-soo and Lee Chang-dong, even writing his thesis on Lee’s Peppermint Candy. Following the success of Minari, Chung directed the disaster sequel Twisters (2024), which became a box office hit, grossing $371 million worldwide, including $267.8 million in the United States and Canada and $103.2 million internationally.

 

Korean Canadian actress Sandra Oh, who won the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress in 2005 for Grey’s Anatomy, made history again in 2019 by becoming the first Asian to win the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Drama Series for Killing Eve. During her acceptance speech, she warmly addressed her parents in Korean, “Mom and Dad, I love you!” The same year, Sandra Oh was named one of TIME’s "100 Most Influential People in the World," alongside BTS.

 

In September 2021, Netflix released Hwang Dong-hyuk’s Squid Game, which became a global sensation, reaching 111 million viewers within 17 days. At the 28th SAG Awards in February 2022, Squid Game made history as the first non-English-speaking drama to win major awards. Lee Jung-jae and Jung Ho-yeon won Best Actor and Best Actress, respectively, while the stunt team won the Stunt Ensemble Award. Additionally, Oh Young-soo received the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor at the age of 77.

 

Over three consecutive years, two Korean films and a drama—Parasite, Minari, and Squid Game—dominated the U.S. entertainment landscape. These works not only captivated audiences but also introduced elements of Korean culture, from Minari (a water parsley used in Korean cooking) to Squid (a nostalgic children’s game), reflecting the global resonance of Korean storytelling.

 

At the 75th Cannes Film Festival in 2022, Korea made waves again. Park Chan-wook won Best Director for Decision to Leave, marking his third Cannes accolade, while Song Kang-ho won Best Actor for Broker (directed by Hirokazu Kore-eda), becoming the first Korean male actor to receive this honor. Song, named one of The New York Times’ "25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century" in 2020, was honored in 2024 with a retrospective of 13 films at the Academy Museum of Los Angeles.

 

The 75th Primetime Emmy Awards in January 2024 brought further success for Korean creators. Lee Sung Jin’s Netflix series Beef won eight Emmys, including Outstanding Limited or Anthology Series, with awards for directing, writing, and acting honors for Steven Yeun and Ali Wong. The show also triumphed at the Golden Globes, winning Best Limited Series and acting awards for Yeun and Wong.

 

Meanwhile, Past Lives (2023), the debut film by Celine Song, received critical acclaim. The semi-autobiographical story won Best Film and Best Director at the 39th Independent Spirit Awards and earned nominations for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay at the Academy Awards. It also garnered five Golden Globe nominations, including Best Motion Picture-Drama and Best Actress for Greta Lee.

 

These achievements further cement Korean and Korean diaspora artists’ profound impact on global cinema and television.

 

 

 

Sukie Park

A native Korean, Sukie Park studied journalism and film & theater in Seoul. She worked as a reporter with several Korean pop, cinema, photography and video magazines, as a writer at Korean radio (KBS-2FM 영화음악실) and television (MBC-TV 출발 비디오 여행) stations, and as a copywriter at a video company(대우 비디오). Since she moved to New York City, Sukie covered culture and travel for The Korea Daily of New York(뉴욕중앙일보) as a journalist. In 2012 she founded www.NYCultureBeat.com, a Korean language website about cultural events, food, wine, shopping, sightseeing, travel and people.

 

 

33 Keys to Decoding the Korean Wave, Hallyu 

Beyond BTS, Parasite & Squid Game 

 

CONTENTS

 

#Prologue: 국풍인가, 국뽕인가 Dynamic Korea, Sparkling Koreans